Gregorian Schism Gregorianism, Grigorievshchina, is a schismatic movement in the Russian Orthodox Church that existed from 1925 to the early 1940s, planned by the OGPU to weaken the Church and enjoyed its support at the initial stage of its activities.

Structural overview of the story “Pharaoh and the Chorale”

Structural overview of the story "The Pharaoh and the Chorale" Obviously, the main character of the story is Sopy, and the action takes place in New York, probably at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. By paying attention to these basic plot elements, you should understand the basis of the plot: what is the main character trying to do?

[Gregorian chant, Gregorian, Gregorian chant (obsolete); lat. cantus gregorianus; English gregorian chant; French chant grégorien; German gregorianischer Gesang, gregorianischer Choral, Gregorianik; Italian canto gregoriano], traditional. designation of single-voice (monodic) singing Roman rite. The texts of G. p. mainly come from the Holy Scriptures. Scriptures in his Latin. versions or are adaptations of biblical poetry. The civil settlement developed on the territory of modern times. France, South and Zap. Germany, Switzerland and South. The Netherlands in the 8th-9th centuries. and has come down to the present day in a continuous, although historically changing, tradition. time, being an integral part of the heritage of the ancient undivided Church.

Terminology

In the early Middle Ages. Literary G. p. was considered a singer. Roman style origin and was defined as “Roman singing” (cantus romanus or cantilena romana). The creation of G. p.'s melodies was attributed to St. Gregory I the Great, Pope of Rome. Throughout history, doubts have arisen about the authorship of St. Gregory; in the present At the time, it was recognized that his role in the creation of the G. p. was limited only to the selection and editing of singers. texts, only later. which served as the basis for Gregorianism and the so-called. old roman chant. The melodic content of the song was largely determined by the traditions that already existed on the territory of the Frankish state at the end. VIII - beginning X century, during the reign of the Carolingian dynasty (see. Gallican singing). Hence the other name for G. p., which is increasingly found in modern times. research literature, - Romano-Frank. singing or Romano-Frank. chant (English: Roman-Frankish Chant). Along with the term "G. P." Traditionally, the designation “even singing” or “simple singing” is also used (Latin cantus planus; English plainchant, pliansong; French plain chant or plain-chant; Italian canto planо), sometimes also applied to other regional types of church monophony.

can be divided into 4 groups.

Singing manuscripts of the 9th-16th centuries. and printed music publications of the 15th-17th centuries.

Survived approx. 30 thousand manuscripts, which, according to preliminary estimates, is approx. 0.1% of the entire corps of singers. books created in medieval workshops. West (St ä blein. 1975. S. 102). In addition to the books that have come down to us in complete form, several have survived. tens of thousands of fragments, most of which have not been catalogued; the earliest of them are no less valuable sources on the history of civil engineering than complete manuscripts. Early printed publications have been cataloged, but little has been studied. There are the following main types of chanters. books (Vogel. 1986; Huglo. 1988; Palazzo. 1993): 1. For the Eucharistic celebration ( masses): a) unnotated or partially notated Sacramentary , Lectionary masses and Evangelary(variety - Evangelistarium); b) fully notated Gradual(earlier name - Antiphonary mass); solo sections of the mass can be separated into a separate book - Cantatorium; a collection of chants based on calendar-unchanged texts - Kirial; a book in which all the texts and hymns of the Mass are combined is called Missal. 2. For daily cycle worship ( office; also called canonical hours - Horae canonicae): a) unnotated or partially notated service, or ferial (medieval Latin feria - designation of days of the liturgical week, except Sunday), Psalter and Lectionary Office; b) fully notated Antiphonary office and Hymnary, which were often combined under one binding with the Psalter; a book that combines all the texts and chants of the daily cycle is called Breviary. There are also singers. books with chants of individual services - Vesperale(vespers), Matutinale (matins) - or individual genres, for example. Responsoriale, where collected responsorship Matins, but not presented antiphons. The chants of religious processions are included in Processional(Huglo. 1994-2004). A separate group of sources consists of Pontificals with texts and chants of services performed only with the participation of the bishop. Texts and melodies preserved in the chant. books are used as a source for the textual study of G. p., in the liturgical rubrics information about the nature of the performance of the Gregorian is preserved, and the general content of the book gives an idea of ​​the church-historical context of this performance.

Liturgical regulations of individual episcopates and monastic orders

(Ordines, Consuetudines, etc.) described the order of singing chants during the liturgical year. They outline the local features of the performance of G. p., the diversity of which is one of the characteristic features of the Middle Ages. worship services. These charters are used to determine the place of creation of chants. books; The experience accumulated by liturgical science often allows us to determine this place with extreme precision.

Musical theoretical treatises of the 9th-16th centuries.

contain not only a description of the compositional features of individual chants and melodic families, but also certain melodies that have not been preserved in practical sources. The treatises are accompanied by tonaria(Huglo. 1971) - catalogs of chants, where their melodies are classified according to the principle of modal affiliation (see section “Gregorian Octoechos”).

Historical documents of the Middle Ages

Chronicles, charters, theological and scientific treatises, letters, etc. - include enormous and only partially mastered by science material on the history of civil society in the context of the church and social life of the West. world, about the relationship of Gregorianism with other types of the Middle Ages. art and theological thought of that time.

Story

Early Middle Ages

At the end of the patristic era for the West. Europe was characterized by a variety of liturgical rites and chants. styles (see Ambrosian singing , Beneventan Rite(section “Church singing”), Gallican singing , Spanish-Mozarabic singing , Old Roman singing); attempts by the Roman See to introduce uniformity into the liturgical life of this time are unknown. Spread of Rome. liturgical customs in the North date back to the 8th century. and is associated with the formalization of the union between Rome and the Carolingian dynasty that came to power in the state of the Franks. Meeting of Pope Stephen II and Cor. Pepin the Short in 754 was marked not only by a political alliance against the Lombards who threatened Rome, but also by a decision to bring the liturgical life of the kingdom into conformity with the customs of Rome. The first Romans were delivered to the Frankish kingdom. liturgical books. In 760, the king's brother, Bishop. Remigius of Rouen turned to Rome with a request to send Roman singers. singer corporations (Schola cantorum). Pope Paul I (757-767) sent not only Rome to the North. cantors, but also singers. books - Antiphonary and Responsorial (MGH. Epp. T. 3. P. 529). At this time, singers arose. schools in rome model, of particular importance belongs to the school at the cathedral of Metz - the main city of Lorraine; Rome. singing was introduced here already in the 2nd third of the 8th century, under bishop. Chrodegange(† 766), head of the Frankish Church. The location of Metz in the center of the Romano- and German-speaking territories of the kingdom contributed to the spread of the new chant. style to the East and West.

The Romanization of worship and church singing intensified under Charlemagne (768-814), who was crowned Roman in 800 in Rome. Emperor. In the “Admonitio generalis” (General Exhortation) issued by Charles in 789, the ability to perform “Roman chant” (cantus romanus) is included in the range of skills that clerics must master when passing the exam for the position (MGH. Capit. Vol. 1. P. 61). In 805 special imps. are mentioned. envoys (missi) sent to various liturgical centers and monitored the introduction of Rome. chants (Ibid. P. 121). Mon-ri orders played a significant role in the spread of “Roman singing” Benedictines, and above all the so-called. imperial abbeys, which were under the special patronage of the ruling dynasty. The introduction of the new style did not occur without difficulties: the sources preserved traces of conflicts between the francs. singers who were learning a new repertoire, and their Rome. teachers (Dijk. Papal schola. 1963). New singer the repertoire was apparently distributed orally (Hucke 1980; Treitler 1981 and other works); the student had to memorize the tunes communicated to him by the teacher; mastering the main range of hymns of the church year could, therefore, take approx. 7-8 years old. The manuscripts mentioned in the Carolingian sources have not survived; most likely, only the text of the chants was rewritten in them; It has also been suggested that notated sources could have appeared already in the era of Charlemagne (Levy . 1998). Nevertheless, in the most ancient chanters that have reached us. books of the VIII-IX centuries. notation was not included (ed. R. J. Esber: Antiphonale Missarum Sextuplex. 1963). One of these books is French. Cantatorium at the turn of the 8th and 9th centuries. (Italy; Monza. Basilica S. Giovanni. CIX) - opens with a hexameter, in which St. Gregory the Great: “The High Priest Gregory, illustrious in honor and name / ... compiled this book for the singing school / following the science of music in the name of the Most High God.” This text, which lies at the origins of the century-long “Gregorian legend,” was rewritten several times in the early Middle Ages. liturgical books. On miniatures in the Middle Ages. singer manuscripts often depicted St. Gregory dictating to a scribe or recording himself the melodies of the G. p., with a dove, a symbol of the Holy Spirit, on his shoulder (Treitler. 1974; McKinnon. 2001). Name of St. Gregory was supposed to strengthen the authority of the new singer. style; the mention of “musical science” indicates that already at this time G. p., unlike other singers. traditions of the West became the object of musical theoretical reflection, and in the process of its study and teaching the European tradition developed. music theory.

Throughout the 9th century. in chanter. music began to enter everyday life. notation. In theoretical treatises, interval notations were used - alphabetic musical notation, known since antiquity, as well as the so-called. Dasian notation with special signs for scale steps. In the chanter. manuscripts were given the so-called neuromas- signs indicating the general direction of movement of the melody, determining the articulation of the text, but not containing data on the intervals of the melody. The place of origin of neuromas and the circumstances of their occurrence are unknown. The prototypes of the neumas were the lat. prosody, used in grammar and rhetoric in late antiquity. By the 10th century refers to the appearance of fully notated Graduals and Antiphonaries, rewritten using several. regional types of non-neutral writing (St ä blein. 1975; Corbin. 1977). The most developed systems of non-neutral notation were characteristic of the area of ​​distribution of the Lorraine letter (RKP. Laon. Bibl. municip. 239, 10th century) and for the South-West. Germany (corpus of singing books from Mont-Rei St. Gallen And Einsiedeln in modern Switzerland, St. Emmeram in Regensburg). Here the neumas were provided with additional designations that determined in detail the nature of the pronunciation of the liturgical text, as well as the rhythmic lengthening of certain syllables. In manuscripts from South. France (Aquitanian neumes) there was a tendency towards more accurate reproduction of the intervallic structure of melodies. Despite the introduction of notation, oral tradition remained the main means of disseminating grammar; handwritten books were used primarily to control performance when teaching singing.

One of the main issues in the ancient history of civil engineering is the relationship between the new, French, style and the Roman. singer by legend. The sources created in Rome are known only from the end. XI century and retained melodies that differed significantly from the Gregorian. At the same time, in a number of cases it can be assumed that there are common archetypes for franc melodies. and Rome chants; Some researchers talk about 2 dialects of G. p. - Roman and Frankish (Hucke. 1954; 1975; 1980; 1988). The melodic content of the song was determined not only by the singer. style that came from Rome, but also traditions that already existed on the territory of the Frankish state before the Carolingians (see. Gallican singing); In the design of Gregorian chant, the active editorial and compositional activity of the Franks is noticeable. singers and musicians theorists. Both for the Carolingian era and for the 10th and 11th centuries. characterized by a significant expansion of the chanter. repertoire, expressed in composition in tradition. Roman genres ritual and in the creation of new liturgical genres. During the X-XI centuries. anonymous authors composed new melodies for Hallelujah(Schlager. 1965; 1968-1987); the repertoire of Matins responsories expanded sharply (Holman. 1961; Hofmann-Brandt.); developed chants were composed based on the text of the Creed (Credo; see: Miazga. 1976), which had previously been sung using a simple recitation formula. The repertoire of the Ordinary of the Mass was significantly expanded - new melodies were composed for the texts Kyrie eleison , Gloria in excelsis Deo , Sanctus , Benedictus , Agnus Dei(Landwehr-Melnicki. 1955; Bosse. 1955; Thannabaur. 1962; Schildbach. 1967) and Ite missa est. The genre of strophic poems, adjacent to the verse, developed. hymns officia (St ä blein. 1956), which were composed in the traditions of ancient poetry back in the patristic era; the hymns use metrical iambics, hexameter, sapphic stanza, etc. New genres include trails- inserts into traditional chants of the Proprius and Ordinary of the Mass; in the texts of the tropes the theological content of the liturgical text is commented on and developed; the tropes are written in free verse, although antique meters are occasionally found along with it (Haug. 1991; Björkvall, Haug. 1993). Lengthy melismatic chants (see section “Musical and poetic style”) were often subtexted, resulting in the formation of new chants in the genre prosules(sometimes considered a type of trope). From the implications of the final section. "Alleluia" arose sequence- a musical and poetic form based on the principles of syllabic versification, consisting of a number of double stanzas with the same number of syllables in each half-strophe. The genres of trope and sequence reached their greatest perfection in the work of hymnographers Tuotilon And Notkera Zaiki from St. Gallen Monastery. Paths and sequences were included in special collections - Troparia and Prosaria. From the end 9th century The development of the genre of poetic officialdom, or “history,” began, in which traditions were preserved. The rites of the daily cycle used musical and poetic forms uncharacteristic of earlier church singing - texts in the meters of ancient poetry and melodies composed under the influence of secular song culture.

High and late Middle Ages. XVI century

In the XI-XII centuries. G. p. became music. pan-European art meanings. By this time, the traditions of Gallican singing had almost completely disappeared; after the capture of England by the Normans, under cor. William the Conqueror (1066-1087), singing became the main type of singing in the British Isles, displacing earlier chants. traditions. Expansion of power emperors to the East, Christianization of the state in the East. Europe and Scandinavia, the emergence of Western enclaves. liturgical culture in Kievan Rus (see: Kartsovnik. 2003) increased the scope of distribution of G. p. in several. once. In 1099, after the capture of Jerusalem, the Civil War spread to the Crusader states to the Middle East. East. Under the influence of the written tradition of G. p., the recording of ancient chants began. styles of Italy, previously transmitted exclusively orally; judging by these records, by that time the ancient traditions were strongly influenced by Gregorianism. The recording was unable to stop their disappearance, due either to the gradual introduction of civil law (for example, in the area of ​​​​the spread of Beneventan chant) or active, sometimes harsh liturgical reforms (the destruction of books of ancient Roman chant under Pope Nicholas III between 1277 and 1280). The expansion of the choir continued. repertoire and development of the theory of G. p.

All R. XI century There have been significant changes in singing. notations. In him. In the sources, the letter designations of rhythm and prosody disappeared. In the manuscripts of the South French. area, the tendency towards precise fixation of melody intervals has intensified - the so-called. diastematic notation; similar trends are noticeable in the Lorraine letter and in Italian. varieties of non-neutral notation. Neumes were increasingly located on lines previously encountered only occasionally in musical theoretical treatises. In France, thanks to the reforms of the Benedictine William of Dijon (c. 962-1031), manuscripts with double notation appeared - French. neumas are supplemented with letter designations of scale steps. Between 1025 and 1033 mon. Order of the Camaldoles Guido Aretinsky formulated the basic principles of 4-line notation, which remained unchanged for centuries.

Significant changes in civil engineering took place in the 12th century. The composition of new hymns based on biblical and liturgical texts in tradition continued. genres; the trails gradually fell out of use; the poetry of the sequences became rhythmic (Kruckenberg-Goldenstein. 1997). In the service of the canons of the Augustinian convention Saint Victor in Paris, a new type of sequence arose, based on regular rhythm and the use of rhymes (Fassler. 1993). Chants were composed in a free style, only partly using the melodic models of ancient hymns (the most typical example is the creativity Hildegard of Bingen). Rhymed liturgical and paraliturgical songs came into use (see Art. Kanzional). The main type of musical writing in the Romanesque countries and the British Isles became 4-line square notation, in Germany and in the East. Europe - varieties gothic notation. The intervallic structure of the alphabet in linear manuscripts from German-speaking regions differed from the French intervalics. and Italian codes: in it. singer books of the XII-XV centuries. pentatonic versions of melodies prevailed, which in modern times. science is defined as a “Germanic singing dialect” (Wagner. 1930-1932). The rhythm of the singing has changed: instead of the rhythmic chant of early manuscripts, singing of equal durations has spread with the lengthening of the initial tone of the melody or stanza, the main supporting tone of the melody and the final melodic formula (rules Jerome of Moravia XIII century; Tractatus de musica / Ed. S. M. Cserba. S. 181-183).

Along with the reform of the old monastic orders (reforms associated with the abbeys of Cluny in France and Hirsau in Germany) and the emergence of new monastic communities, order versions of the G. p. arose. The most characteristic of them is the version introduced in the order Cistercians as a result of the reforms of Bernard of Clairvaux and served as a model for G. p. Dominicans and some other orders. In the XIV-XV centuries. in Italy and Spain, a new type of singing developed - cantus fractus (intermittent, or broken, singing), which was characterized by regular, so-called. mensural, rhythmic, also characteristic of the polyphony of that time (Il canto fratto. 2006).

In the era of the High and Late Middle Ages, the hymn became the melodic basis for composer experiments in the field of church polyphony (see articles Organum , Motet , Mass). However, despite the rapid development of polyphonic singing, it was practiced only in relatively few musical and liturgical centers. G. p. remained the basis of worship until the 1st half. XVI century In countries that underwent the Reformation, over time, church music was replaced by church songs in national languages. At the same time, the area of ​​distribution of the bird's eye expanded to the West - the first songbirds appeared. books created in Lat. America. In Italian printed sources of the 16th century. (several dozen publications are known) new editions of G. p. were published, which arose under the influence of the so-called. Renaissance humanism; the texts of the chants were edited in the spirit of classical antiquity, the melodies were simplified and brought into line with the tastes of the era. Held in 1545-1563. At the Council of Trent, significant attention was paid to the reform and unification of the G. p., in particular, all paths and all sequences were removed from the divine service, except for the 5 most popular ones. In 1577, the reform of the G. p. in the spirit of the decisions of the Council was entrusted to the largest musicians of that time - G. da Palestrina and A. Zoilo. The results of their work were used in the manual “Directorium chori”, published by Palestrina’s student G. Giudetti in Rome in 1582, and in the chant. book "Graduale iuxta ritum Sacrosanctae Romanae Ecclesiae", printed in Rome. Medici publishing house in 1614-1615. (the so-called medical edition - Editio Medicea; reprint: Graduale de tempore; Graduale de sanctis. 2001). Both publications were considered exemplary for several years. decades. However, despite the efforts of the church authorities, unification was not achieved, and local traditions of G. p. continued to exist and develop (Karp. 2005 and other works).

New time and twentieth century.

The development of polyphony, organ music, large vocal and instrumental genres of the 17th-19th centuries. (cantata, oratorio, mass) pushed G. p. into the background. Monody versions of musical performances with instrumental accompaniment (organ, wind and even percussion instruments) began to appear; the modal-melodic structure was distorted and adapted to the new harmonic style. Gregorian monody was preserved only in the practice of Mont-Rei with a strict charter and in provinces remote from major centers of secular culture. Monuments of ancient notation aroused interest only among certain specialists.

The revival of G. production began in the middle. XIX century and was imbued with a conservative-romantic spirit. The priority in this belongs to the French. and Belgian scientists and musicians, many of whom were associated with the so-called. Liturgical movement, in turn, arose on the basis of the conservative, so-called. Ultramontane, directions to French. public life. The first facsimile publications of ancient manuscripts, carried out in the middle, played a huge role. XIX century F. Danjou, A. de la Fage and P. Lambillot. In England, attempts to revive ancient church singing were made in the 30s. XIX century supporters Oxford Movement with his characteristic interest in church antiquities. The revival of agricultural production in Germany took place within the framework Caecilian movement, the ideal of which was the work of Palestrina (see also Art. Germany, Sec. "Church Music"); edition of Gradual, published in 1871, ed. F. K. Haberl, published by F. Pustet in Regensburg, was based on the medical publication of the beginning. XVII century In 1871, the Regensburg version of the G. p. was officially approved by Pope Pius IX as canonical.

A new stage in the study and restoration of gas production is associated with the activities of the French. Benedictine monastery of St. Petra in Solem (Combe. 2003). In 1860, under the direction of J. Pottier began the training of singers that lasted more than 20 years. books based on data from ancient sources (Pothier. 1880). The research of the Solem Benedictines was characterized by overcoming the romantic approach to the history of church history and the use of the latest methods of church historical science. The invention and development of photography and typographic art had a huge impact on the research of the Solem fathers. In 1889, what continues to this day began in Solem. time, the publication of the monumental series “Paléographie grégorienne” (Gregorian paleography), including complete facsimiles of the most important sources on the history of Geography. Each chant in Solem’s publications is based on source analysis of dozens of ancient manuscripts. The appearance of the Solem publications was delayed due to the fact that the papal monopoly on the publications of the State Duma before the beginning. XX century still belonged to the Regensburg editions of Pustet. The monopoly was overcome after the 2nd motu proprio of Pope Pius X (1903-1914) - dated November 22. 1903 and from April 25 1904, in which the role of Solemsk research was highly appreciated; rights to official publications of the G.P. passed to the Vatican, but their preparation was entrusted to the Solemn Benedictines. The Kirial was published in 1905, the Gradual in 1908, and the Antiphonary in 1912. In these publications, geographies were presented in square notation using several. additional signs and as close as possible to ancient sources. The Vatican publications were followed by other singers. books, including Liber usualis (literally - Everyday book), which served as a reference guide for everyone who studied Gregorianism in the 20th century. Over the course of this century, the study of geology went beyond the boundaries of church institutions and became the object of university science. Along with the classical textual criticism of Solem, new textual methods began to be used; in scientific publications, conventional arrhythmic notation, characteristic of modern times, began to be used. research. In the creation of academic Gregorian studies, a special role was played by the research of P. Wagner(1865-1931) - author of the 3-volume “Introduction to Gregorian Chant” (1895; 1905; 1921), doorman. scientist, native of Russia J. Handshina(1886-1955), German. scientists B. Steblein(1895-1978) and V. Apel(1983-1988), who worked in the USA and became the founder of Amer. Gregorian school. Significant contribution to the study of genetics in the twentieth century. was also introduced by the Englishman G. M. Bannister (1854-1919), the Catalan G. Suñol (1879-1946), the French Solange Corbin (1903-1973), R. J. Esbert (1899-1983), E. Cardin (1905 -1988) and M. Yuglo(born in 1921), Americans K. Livi(born in 1927), J. McKinnon (1932-1999) and L. Treitler (born in 1931), the Germans H. Hucke (1927-2003) and V. Arlt, the Italian J. Cattin (born in 1929) and a number of other scientists.

If initially the study of chant was concentrated only in several. European scientific centers, over time it has become a rapidly developing international research area. Since the 60-70s. XX century Amer. actively participated in the study of Gregorianism. un-you. Research on the history of Gregorianism is carried out not only in Germany, Great Britain, France, Italy, but also in Spain, Scandinavian countries, East. Europe, Australia, South. Africa and Japan. Several issues have been devoted to various problems of hydraulic engineering. thousands of studies in different languages. In the 2nd half. XX century the special role of Gregorianism in Rome. The ritual was repeatedly noted in the official documents of the Roman Catholic Church. The Acts of the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965) emphasized that “the Church recognizes Gregorian chant as characteristic of the Roman liturgy. Therefore, in liturgical actions, other conditions being equal, it should be given primary place” (Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy “Sacrosanctum concilium” VI 116). The liturgical reforms that followed the Council led to the displacement of Latin by national languages ​​and to the distortion of traditions. forms of worship of the time, to the penetration into the liturgy of muses alien to it. genres and forms. In modern conditions of G. p. is preserved mainly in the monastic worship of the West. Churches and in parishes visited by representatives of the church intelligentsia. The main source of the officially approved G. p. in the post-conciliar era is the Roman Gradual (Graduale Romanum), released by the Solemn Benedictines in 1974. In 2005, the 1st part of the post-conciliar monastic Antiphonary of the daily circle was published.

Musical and poetic style

Prosody and rhythm

The texts of G. p. are borrowed not only from Vulgates, but also from other, earlier lat. Bible translations; Paraphrases of the biblical text are also used. Texts play a significant role in civil engineering. Psalms. Rhythmic prose lat. The Bible finds its perfect embodiment in Geography. In Gregorian studies, it is customary to distinguish 3 main styles of church monody in general and church music in particular (Ferretti. 1934): syllabic (1 musical tone per syllable of the text), neumatic (from 2 to 4-5 tones per syllable) and melismatic ( unlimited number of tones per syllable).

The syllabic style includes plural. antiphons and hymns of the office, sequences of the mass, a significant part of the melodies of the Credo. Most of the hymns of the Proprius and Ordinary of the Mass are sung in the neumatic style, but the Kyrie eleison, gradual and "Alleluia" belong to the melismatic style. The most developed melismatic genre is responsory officia, in which chants from several are sometimes found. dozens of tones per syllable. The boundary between styles is arbitrary - we are talking only about the predominance of a certain ratio of tones and text. The division of melodies always strictly corresponds to the boundaries between semantic sections of the text. Particular attention is paid to the phonetics of the text - in G. p. not only vowel sounds are sung, but also semi-vowels that occur between 2 consonants, and nasal vowels; the text sung in this way acquires a special rhetorical clarity. In musical notation, the chant of these sounds was recorded as so-called. liquescent (from liquescere - melt, soften), or semi-vocal, neuma. In the most ancient Germans. In manuscripts, rhetorically important elements of the text were distinguished by a special sign - episeme (Greek ἐπίσημα - additional sign; the term was introduced at the beginning of the twentieth century), meaning an extension of duration and semantic emphasis on a given tone.

Since the first attempts to revive Gregorianism in the 19th century. The subject of constant debate among researchers was the rhythmic organization of rhythmic rhythms of the most ancient era (Rayburn, 1964); so-called directions arose. mensuralists and equalists, who turned to the same manuscript sources, but received diametrically opposed results. Mensuralists (G. Riemann, A. Dechevrin, P. Wagner, etc.) assumed that the rhythm was based on a regular rhythm in the proportion 1:2 or 1:3. Equalists (J. Pothier and others) insisted on the predominance of equal durations and on the special role of text stresses in the rhythmic organization of the melody.

In the 20-30s. XX century Attempts were also made to reconcile both schools and create a kind of compromise theory of Gregorian rhythm (P. Ferretti et al.; see: Ferretti. 1934). A system of views independent of both schools was developed in the beginning. XX century Solemsky scientist A. Mocquereau (1908-1927). According to his ideas, the Gregorian rhythm is not determined by the rhythm of the text; it is based on changing rhythmic groups of 2, 3, 4 or more sounds; each of these groups includes accented (thesis) and unaccented (arsis) tones. The appearance of accent (ictus) is caused by the immanent development of the melody and may not coincide with the emphasis of the text. Mockero's theory had a huge influence on Solem's theory and practice. Special designations for ictus were introduced into the Solem editions; The style of singing adopted in Solem is known for its extraordinary rhythmic flexibility, which generates a special contemplative effect. The further development of Solem research in the field of rhythm and prosody is associated with the name of Cardin, in the 60s. XX century who developed a new discipline - Gregorian semiology, the main principle of which is to follow the smallest graphic details of ancient sources. Cardin's significant contribution to the study of Gregorian rhythm was the discovery of the so-called. neumatic break (French coupure neumatique) - a special way of grouping neumas that carries certain information about their rhythmic content. The main source according to which the followers of Cardin (see: Augostoni, G ö schl. 1987-1992) perform the G. p., was the Solemsky edition of the Roman Gradual with inscribed lines from ancient sources, replete with rhythmic and articulatory notations. Most chants are represented by 3 lines - southern. (St. Gallen) neumes, Lorraine neumes, and standard square Solem notation; hence the name of the publication - “Triple Gradual” (Graduale Triplex. 1979 and other editions). In modern In Gregorian studies there are also other, more than numerous, views. on the nature of Gregorian rhythm and prosody. The opinion has been repeatedly expressed that there are no unified codified rules for the rhythmic interpretation of Gregorianism. Great influence on modern times. G. p. practice, including rhythmic interpretation, is provided by singers. Eastern Christian styles Churches, folklore and non-European. music cultures (experiments of D. Vellar, E. Reznikov, the Organum ensemble and many others).

Gregorian Octoechos

G. p., like many others. other singer styles based on system osmoglasiya, or octoechus, the main principles of which were borrowed from Byzantium, although they underwent a number of changes in the West. Byzantine. category ἦχος (see Voice) in Gregorianism corresponds to the concept of modus (Latin - measure, method, direction), which could also be expressed by the term tropus (from the Greek τρόπος; this term should not be confused with a genre designation) or tonus.

In traditional European In music theory, modes were also called church modes or tones (German: Kirchentöne). Whether a chant belongs to one or another mode is determined by several factors. criteria: 1) ambitus(range) melody; 2) the final tone of the melody (lat. finalis), which is considered its main modal support; 3) characteristic melodic formulas, primarily initial ones (Latin initium), although not only; 4) the 2nd mode support of the melody (Latin tenor, or tuba), which is repeated most often in the melody and a melodic climax is formed around the cut.

Octoechos consists of 4 groups, Crimea in the early Middle Ages was assigned stylized Greek. terminology of the name: protus (final d), deuterus (final e), tritus (final f) and tetrardus (final g). In each of the groups there are 2 modes: authentic and plagal. In modes of the authentic type, the finalis coincides with the lower degree of the ambitus; in plagal modes it is located a fourth higher. In later sources, the designations of modes by numbers predominate - from 1st to 8th; to them was added the rarely used tonus peregrinus (alien, or strange, tone; according to another interpretation - the tone of pilgrims, since Ps 113 performed in this mode was considered a pilgrimage chant; in a number of sources peregrinus is called the “newest tone” - tonus novissimus). In the Middle Ages. Gregorian manuscripts as opposed to chants. Byzantine books During the ritual, the modal affiliation of the chant was indicated extremely rarely, and to determine the mode it was necessary to resort to the help of tonars. In the Solem editions of G. p., indicating the mode is the rule. The modal organization of G. p. was the main theme of lat. musical theoretical treatises of the Middle Ages, where the subtlest problems of the modal organization of melodies were discussed. Nevertheless, the singer. practice did not always agree with theoretical principles. The treatises mention a number of chants, the modal affiliation of which could not be precisely determined. There are numerous cases of mixing modes within the same chant. It is possible that in the Carolingian era Byzantium. the modal classification system was applied post factum to chanters. repertoire, which has developed or was developing independently of it: in any case, the G. p. does not have many of the features characteristic of the Byzantines. Octoechos, in particular the coordination of voices with the liturgical calendar.

Genres and forms

Liturgical recitation

A number of genres of G. p., like other singers. styles of the East and West, is based on the simplest forms of syllabic interpretation of the text, i.e. on reading it in one tone (Latin tenor) with the inclusion of chanting phrases at the beginning and end of the text, as well as in its particularly significant places. To these so-called recitation genres include: 1) exclamations of the serving priest; 2) priestly prayers read in Rom. rite aloud (collecta - general prayer; super oblata - prayer over the Eucharistic Gifts; post communio - prayer after communion); 3) readings of the Mass - from the Apostolic Epistles and the Gospel; officia readings - from the OT and NT, from the patristic and hagiographical literature; 4) texts of the Eucharistic canon read aloud; 5) blessings of the mass and officiation; 6) the recitation tones of the official psalms and the psalmodic verses derived from them, which are part of certain other genres. Historically, the texts of the Ordinary of the Mass were also recited: Kyrie eleison, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, Benedictus and Agnus Dei, which received developed melodies over time. Initially, the recitation was transmitted orally and began to be written down only from the 12th-13th centuries. In the Middle Ages, there were numerous local ways (cursus) of recitation, most of which are almost unstudied (see the work on liturgical recitation in Poland: Morawski. 1996). Liber usually offers several. normative melodic formulas for prayers (orationes, preces, suffragia, etc.) and liturgical readings (lectiones and capitula), consisting of recitation with the simplest melodic turns for the beginning and end of a line. Liturgical recitation sometimes includes melodies sounding in a free speech manner with a small scale - Pater noster (Our Father), praeconium ( Exultet), performed by a deacon on Easter night, etc. However, the absence of a repeated recitative tone allows us to consider these melodies as chants of the syllabic style (among the regional versions of praecominum there are both recitative and melodically developed melodies). A classic example of choral recitation should be considered the psalmody officio .preceded antiphon(see section “Antiphonal and responsor singing”) the psalm is recited alternately by 2 semi-choirs on a stable melodic formula and ends with a doxology: Gloria Patri et Filio et Spiritui Sancto, sicut erat in principio et nunc et semper et in saecula saeculorum. Amen (Glory to the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, as it was in the beginning and now and ever and to the ages of ages. Amen), after which the antiphon follows again. In the process of learning choral psalmody, the doxologies of all 8 tones were memorized and served as models for the performance of psalms in the office. The final words of the doxology are et in saeculum saeculorum. Amen - can be chanted in different ways: these chants are called differentiations (lat. differentia lit. - difference) and are abbreviated with the vowel letters EUOUAE (saEcUlOrUm AmEn). The differentiation is placed in the Antiphonary after the antiphon and thus becomes the connecting link between the antiphon and the psalm.

Antiphonal and responsor singing

Psalmody officia is the oldest form of the antiphonal variety of psalmody, based on the dialogue of two groups of liturgical choir (see also Art. Antiphon). Certain other genres, which in the process of development have lost their direct connection with the original forms of antiphonal singing, are nevertheless usually classified as belonging to the group of antiphons. Among them - introits, or the entrance antiphons of the Mass, consisting of the antiphon proper, psalmodic verse, doxology and repetition of the antiphon. It can be assumed that in ancient times the psalm was sung in full by 2 half choirs, but over time it was shortened. The introits are written on the texts of St. Scriptures, but they rarely use the texts of the Psalter. The text of the introit sets the main theme of the liturgical celebration, in some cases in an allegorical way; that is why introits were supplied more often than other genres paths. The corpus of the oldest introites is approx. 150 chants, most of which belong to the masterpieces of G. p. The group of antiphons of the mass also includes the sacramental antiphon, or communio, organized according to a similar principle. In addition to antiphonal singing, since ancient times there have been responsor chants (from the Latin responsum - answer), based on the dialogue of the soloist - office and choir. Gregorian responsor chants are closely related to the liturgical readings and represent the community’s response to the biblical, patristic or hagiographic text read: the gradual of the Mass follows the reading from the Apostolic Epistles, “Alleluia” is sung after the Gospel, the responsory officia (lengthy or short) - after the readings of Matins ( matutinum), vespers and other services of the daily cycle. The paraliturgical song is sung in responsor form. litany, consisting of petitions from the serving priest and a refrain repeated by the people (priest: “Most Holy Theotokos”, people: “Pray for us”; priest: “Holy name of the rivers”, people: “Pray for us”). One type of litany historically was the Kyrie eleison, sung alternately by the cantor and the choir.

Free forms

A number of Gregorian chants cannot be classified either as antiphonal or responsorial. Thus, Gloria and Credo are sung in chorus from beginning to end, only the initial words of these chants are intoned by the serving bishop or priest. Offertory, performed during the preparation of the Eucharistic bread and wine for the celebration of the sacrament of the Eucharist, historically was a chant of the responsor type, but after disappearing in the 11th-12th centuries. from the practice of solo verses, it has become a chant of a free type (at present, attempts are being made to restore the original method of performing the offertory). The combination of antiphonal, responsor, and free forms in the liturgical rite reflects the genre diversity characteristic of liturgical rites, which is organically combined with the unity of the muses. style.

Lit.: Bibliography. reference books and reviews: Kohlhase T ., Paucker G . M. Bibliographie gregorianischer Choral. Regensburg, 1990. (Beitr. z. Gregorianik; 9-10); Addenda I. Regensburg, 1993. (Ibid.; 15-16) [ed. add. in: Plainsong & Mediaeval Music. Camb., 1992-.]; Hiley D. Writings on Western Plainchant in the 1980s and 1990s // Acta musicologica. Basel, 1997. Vol. 69. P. 53-93; idem. Chant Bibliography // http://www.uni-regensburg.de /Fakultaeten/phil_Fak_I/Musikwissenschaft/cantus/index.htm [Electr. resource].

Discography: Weber J. F. A Gregorian Chant Discography. Utica (N.Y.), 1990. 2 vol. [everyday add. in: Plainsong & Mediaeval Music. Camb., 1992-.].

Periodic and cont. ed.: Paléographie musicale: Les principaux manuscrits de chant grégorien, ambrosien, mozarabe, gallican. Solesmes, 1889-. [Fax. ed. manuscripts]; Monumenta Musicae Sacrae: Coll. de manuscripts et l"études. Macon, 1952-1981 [fax edition of manuscripts]; Études grégoriennes. Solesmes, 1954-.; Monumenta Monodica Medii Aevi. Kassel, 1956-. [transcriptions of singing monuments]; Journal of the Plainsong and Mediaeval Music Society. Englefield Green (Surrey), 1978-1990; Studi gregoriani, 1985-.; ; Plainsong & Mediaeval Music., 1992-.

Modern church singer books: Liber responsorialis: pro festis I. classis et communi sanctorum juxta ritum monasticum. Solesmes, 1894; Graduale sacrosanctae Romanae ecclesiae. R., 1908; Antiphonale sacrosanctae Romanae ecclesiae. R., 1912; Liber usualis missae et officii pro Dominicis et festis I vel II. classis. R., 1921 [pl. reprint]; Antiphonale monasticum pro diurnis horis. Tournai etc., 1934; Graduale sacrosanctae Romanae ecclesiae […] restit. et ed. Pauli VI. Solesmes, 1974; Ordo missae in cantu: Missale Romanum, auctoritate Pauli PP. VI promulgatum. Solesmes, 1975; Psalterium monasticum. Solesmes, 1981; Graduale triplex, seu Graduale Romanum Pauli PP. VI cura recognitum & rhythmicis signis a Solesmensibus monachis ornatum: neumis Laudunensibus (cod. 239) et Sangallensibus (cod. San Gallensis 359 et Einsidlensis 121) nunc auctum / . Solesmes, 1979; Antiphonale Romanum. Vol. 2: Liber hymnarius cum invitatoriis & aliquibus responsoriis. Solesmes, 1983; Antiphonale monasticum. Solesmes, 2005.

Publisher: Pothier J. Les mélodies grégoriennes d'après la tradition. Tournai, 1880; Marbach C. Carmina scripturarum, scilicet antiphonas et responsoria, ex sacro Scripturae fonte in libros liturgicos Sanctae Ecclesiae Romanae derivata. Argentorati, 1907. Hildesheim, 1994r; Thibaut J. B. Monuments de la notation ekphonétique et neumatique de l"Église latine. St.-Pb., 1912; Bannister H. M. Monumenti vaticani di paleografia musicale latina. Lpz., 1913. Farnborough, 1969r. 2 vol. (Codices e vaticanis selecti. Ser. maior; 12); Wagner P. Das Graduale der St. Thomaskirche zu Leipzig (14. Jh.). Lpz., 1930-1932. 2 Bde. (Publ. älterer Musik; 5, 7); Hesbert R.-J. Antiphonale missarum sextuplex. Brux., 1935; idem. Corpus antiphonalium officii. R., 1963. Vol. 1: Manuscripti "cursus romanus"; 1965. Vol. 2: Manuscripti "cursus monasticus"; 1968. Vol. 3: Invitatoria et antiphonae; 1970. Vol. 4: Responsoria, versus, hymni, varia; 1975. Vol. 5: Fontes earumque prima ordinatio; 1979. Vol. 6: Secunda et tertia ordinationes [correction: Pouderoijen K. Einige Specimina von Fehlern in Corpus antiphonalium officii III & IV // International Musicological Society Study Group Cantus Planus: Papers Read at the 6th Meeting, Eger, Hungary, 1993 / Ed. Dobszay L.; Bdpst., 1995. P. 29-43]; Bosse D. Untersuchung einstimmiger mittelalterlicher Melodien z. "Gloria in excelsis Deo". Regensburg, 1955; Landwehr-Melnicki M. Das einstimmige Kyrie des lateinischen Mittelalters. Regensburg, 1955; St ä blein B . Hymnen. Kassel etc., 1956. Bd. 1: Die mittelalterlichen Hymnenmelodien des Abendlandes. (MMMA; 1); Graduel romain: Éd. crit. par les moines de Solesmes. Vol. 2: Les sources. Solesmes, 1957; Holman H.-J. The Responsoria prolixa of the Cod. Worcester F 160: Diss. Bloomington (Ind.), 1961; Thannabaur P. J. Das einstimmige Sanctus der römischen Messe in der handschriftlichen Überlieferung des 11. bis 16. Jh. Münch., 1962; Schlager K. Thematischer Katalog der ältesten Alleluia-Melodien aus Handschr. des 10. und 11. Jh., ausgennomen das ambrosianische, alt-römische und alt-spanische Repertoire. Münch., 1965; idem. Alleluia-Melodien. Kassel etc., 1968-1987. 2 Bde. (MMMA; 7-8); Schildbach M. Das einstimmige Agnus Dei und seine handschriftliche Überlieferung vom 10. bis z. 16. Jh.: Diss. Erlangen, 1967; Gamber K. Codices liturgici latini antiquiores. Freibourg (Schweiz), 19682; 1988. Suppl. /Ed. B. Baroffio et al.; Bryden J. R., Hughes D. G. An Index of Gregorian Chant. Camb. (Mass.), 1969. 2 vol. [OK. 11 thousand modern melodies. ed.]; Hofmann-Brandt H. Die Tropen zu den Responsorien des Offiziums: Diss. Erlangen, . 2 Bde; Huglo M. Les manuscrits du processionnal. Kassel etc., 1999-2004. Vol. 1: Autriche à Espagne; Vol. 2: France à Afrique du Sud. (Répertoire intern. des sources mus.; B14/1-2); Miazga T. Die Melodien des einstimmigen Credo der Römisch-Katholischen Lateinischen Kirche. Graz, 1976; CANTUS: A Database for Latin Ecclesiastical Chant. // http://publish.uwo.ca/~cantus [Electr. resource; textual incipits of antiphons official]; Dobszay L ., Szendrei J . Antiphonen. Kassel etc., 1999. (MMMA; 5); Lebedev S. N., Pospelova R. L. Musica Latina: Lat. texts in music and music. science. St. Petersburg, 2000; Graduale de tempore iuxta: ritum sacrosanctae Romanae ecclesiae: Ed. princeps (1614) / Ed. G. Baroffio, M. Sodi. Vat., 2001; Graduale de sanctis: iuxta ritum sacrosanctae Romanae ecclesiae: Ed. princeps (1614-1615) / Ed. G. Baroffio, Kim Eun Ju. Vat., 2001. (Monumenta stud. instrumenta liturgica; 10-11); Nocturnale Romanum: Antiphonale Romanae ecclesiae pro nocturnis horis / Ed. H. Sandhofe. R., 2002; Codices Electronici Sangallenses. // http//www.cesg.unifr.ch [Electr. resource]; Ite-Missa-est-Melodien. (MMMA; 19) (in preparation).

Research: Mocquereau A. Le Nombre musical grégorien, ou rythmique grégorienne: Théorie et pratique. R.; Solesmes, 1908-1927. 2 vol.; Wagner P. Einführung in die gregorianischen Melodien. Friborg, 19113. Bd. 1: Ursprung und Entwicklung der liturgischen Gesangsformen; Lpz., 19123. Bd. 2: Neumenkunde: Paläographie des liturgischen Gesanges; 1921. Bd. 3: Gregorianische Formenlehre; Su ñ ol G . Introducció a la paleografía mus. gregoriana. Montserrat, 1925 (French translation: P.; Tournai, 1935); Ferretti P. Estetica gregoriana: Trattato d. forme musicali d. canto gregoriano. R., 1934; Johner D. Wort und Ton im Choral: Ein Beitr. z. Aesthetik d. gregorianischen Gesanges. Lpz., 1940; Hucke H. Die Einführung des Gregorianischen Gesangs im Frankenreich // RQS. 1954. Bd. 49. S. 172-187; idem. Karolingische Renaissance und Gregorianischer Gesang // Die Musikforschung. Kassel, 1975. Bd. 28. S. 4-18; idem. Towards a New Hist. View of Gregorian Chant // JAMS. 1980. Vol. 33. P. 437-467; idem. Gregorianische Fragen // Die Musikforschung. 1988. Bd. 41. S. 304-330; Apel W. Gregorian Chant. L., 1958. Bloomington, 1990r; Jammers E. Musik in Byzanz, im päpstlichen Rom und im Frankenreich: Der Choral als Musik der Textaussprache. Hdlb., 1962; idem. Tafeln z. Neumenschrift. Tutzing, 1965; Dijk S. J. P ., van . Papal schola “versus” Charlemagne // Organicae voces: FS J. Smits van Waesberghe. Amst., 1963. S. 21-30; Rayburn J. Gregorian Chant: A History of the Controversy Concerning its Rhythm. N. Y., 1964; Muryanov M. F. Reconstruction of Romano-Germanic. medieval manuscripts: On the material of Leningrad. meetings: AKD. L., 1966; Cardine E. Semiologia gregoriana. R., 1968 (French translation: Sémilogie grégorienne // EGreg. 1970. Vol. 11. P. 1-158; English translation: Gregorian Semiology. Solesmes, 1982); Floros C. Universale Neumenkunde. Kassel, 1970. 3 Bde; Huglo M. Les Tonaires: Inventaire, analysis, comparison. P., 1971; idem. Les livres de chant liturgique. 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Problems of formula in the Middle Ages. chorale // Ancient music in the context of modern times. culture. M., 1989. S. 148-156; Cattin G. La monodia nel Medioevo. Torino, 19912; Haug A. Neue Ansätze im 9. Jh. // Die Musik des Mittelalters / Hrsg. H. Möller, R. Stephan. Laaber, 1991. S. 94-128. (Neues Handb. der Musikwiss.; 2) Agustoni L ., Göschl J . Einführung in die Interpretation des Gregorianischen Chorals. Regensburg, 1987. Bd. 1: Grundlagen; 1992. Bd. 2: Ästhetik; Bj ö rkvall G ., Haug A . Tropentypen in Sankt Gallen // Recherches nouvelles sur les tropes liturgiques / Ed. W. Arlt, G. Björkvall. Stockholm, 1993. S. 119-174. (Stud. Latina Stockholmiensia; 36); Hiley D. Western Plainchant: A Handbook. Oxf., 1993; Palazzo E. Le Moyen Âge: des origines au XIIIe siècle. P., 1993. (Histoire des livres liturgiques); Turko A. Le chant romain: Les antiennes d"introït selon la version mélodique des manuscrits inédits du chant romain comparée a celles du grégorien & de l"ambrosien. 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V. G. Kartsovnik